Circles and Squares
“The Chinese concept of propriety (“li”)
as the key to new ecological awareness”
Emanuel Pastreich
January 13, 2019
The Chinese tradition of “li” 礼 has a broad significance as a set of rules that set standards in behavior
that create harmony between individuals, and between the institutions of human
society. Li, both in general sense of manners and propriety, and in the narrow
sense of rituals of life (birth, marriage, funerals, ancestor worship and
offerings to Heaven), was the foundation for society and defined family
relationships and encouraged responsibility and accountability within the
family, the community, the nation and the realm. Li was seen as foundations for governance, for international relations and for all family relations.
In the narrow sense, “li” refers to the offering up of
food and other valued objects as sacrifices to the ancestors of a clan, the former emperor or king, or to heaven,
or other deities. It served as periodic affirmation of the indebtedness of the
individual, of the family and of humanity
as a whole to the ecological cycles that produced the food that we consume and
gave deeper significance to foodstuff, and the act of eating in a manner that
encouraged an awareness of the centrality of agriculture and the importance of
the ecosystem.
“Li” in the sense of “propriety” defines a set of complex rules that governed conduct between people and created a healthy order in
society through the reinforcement of
moral imperatives in daily life. “Li” in the sense of greeting family member in
accord with their position within the family (and thus making social relations
explicit, and therefore acknowledged) had profound symbolic value and real
ethical power as well. “Li” in the sense of propriety grew directly out of “li” as ritual in that periodic rituals defined relationships and assured that everyone, even the
emperor, is neatly woven into a larger hierarchy of things human and natural so that no
one can imagine himself or herself to be standing alone.
In this sense, “li” as propriety and ritual reinforced a sense of balance
between humans that was intimately connected to the larger balance between the
human realm and the natural realm. Chinese felt deeply liberated in the process
of modernization in that they gained freedom from these ritual acts which
seemed to restrict their actions so severely, but that meant that they no
longer felt tied to each other or to the natural world. The result was the
growing exploitation of fellow humans in an alienated society and the
destruction of the natural environment. Although the socialist revolution in
China tried to set right the radical exploitation of labor, it did so within a
Marxist framework which did not affirm human relations with the natural
environment. More recently, the gap between rich and poor in China, and the
world, has gone far beyond what Confucians would have tolerated and the
destruction of soil, water and mountains has become a tremendous tragedy
precisely because the intimate connection constantly repeated in “li” has been
destroyed.
Ritual is not limited to Confucianism. It has strong foundations in Buddhism, in Daoism and in shamanism in East Asia, and for that matter parallels in
Christianity and Islam. Perhaps one of the greatest weaknesses in contemporary
ideology is our loss of a language to describe ritual. That is to say that
although we pretend that we have moved beyond the rituals of the past into a
modern age of self-expression and directness, in fact ritual is deeply imbedded
in human culture and cannot be overcome. Rather, modern society consists of
many rituals that citizens are not aware of as rituals (like the rituals of
shopping and of consuming). At the same time, citizens lack awareness of the
power of ritual to connect citizens together and to increase their awareness of
the environment and to create a political and spiritual commons.
The Confucian ritual tradition, especially after Zhu Xi’s (1130-1200)
codification and standardization of ritual practice during the Southern Song
Dynasty, and his linkage of ritual with a metaphysical totality, gave family,
community and state rituals a new intellectual import. The importance of the
relationship between the underlying metaphysical order of things, the ecosystem
and the human realm the dates back to ancient times,[1] but
it had never been put together in such a systematic manner. Suddenly man’s ties
to nature in his every action were made explicit, and intellectually involved.
Zhu Xi unambiguously mapped out the significance of
rituals and wedded them directly to an imbricated metaphysical order that lay
behind every act in the family rituals.
The tremendous potential of the Confucian rituals is
the manner in which they affirm the relationship between the individual and
nature, between the consumption of food and the awareness of its origins, between
daily life for the citizen and the ecosystem as a whole. Those rituals, if they
can be reinterpreted for our age, offer the potential of a solution to the most
serious threat to our society, the growth of mindless consumption as the
primary ritual of daily life.
Modernity, consumption and family rituals: The Korean case
When I married my Korean wife twenty two years ago, I
discovered that her family practiced the most strict and carefully orchestrated
Confucian rituals at the time of the Autumn Harvest and the traditional new
year’s for the ancestors, and also on the days of the deaths of ancestors. The
entire family would come from across Korea, or even from abroad to be at the parents’
house for the events without fail. They would cancel other engagements and sit
through hours of heavy traffic to be present. The elder boys spent considerable time laying
out the meat, peeled chestnuts, persimmons, apples, wine and other foods in the
appropriate places, and in the appropriate dish or bowl. All was done in accord
with the careful diagrams in books the family treasured. Those diagrams were
based directly on Zhu Xi’s instructions for the family rites (jiali 家礼) in Zhuzi Jiali (朱子家礼). At that
time, I was attracted to the solidarity of the family and the commitment to
tradition in her family, and I was honored to be included in the rituals as a
new member of the family.
Over the years, however, the members of my wife’s
family have taken far less interest in the rituals; often her brothers do not
come at all, saying they are too busy with work. The children also go out to
play with their friends, or show up just for a few minutes to show their
respects and then rush out the door. So also the placement of the food and
other objects on the table for the ceremonies has become far more sloppy since
my wife’s father passed away. Often there are only a few people helping to set
up the offerings—sometimes only me.
I fear that the Confucian rituals will not be carried
out at all by the next generation, perhaps not after my wife’s mother’s
generation passes away. It is hard to imagine my children, granted the
seductive consumption culture that they have grown up in, carrying on such a
tradition. The loss is considerable, but not much different from what we have
seen in Vietnam, Japan and China.
Increasingly we hear tales of aged parents who are abandoned
by their children, and also of children who are discarded, or neglected, by
their parents. The decline of Confucian ritual is not the only cause of this
transformation of Chinese and Korean society, nor are the changes entirely
negative, but overall, the result has been the growth of a narcissistic culture
focused on the immediate, on the self, on image (as opposed to values) and
unconcerned with future consequences. Confucian rituals served as a constant affirmation
of the common roots that tie people together, and a demonstration of our mutual
ethical obligations. The rituals had significance far beyond any effect that
pleasing the ancestors might have for the fortune of the family.
The greatest
assault on ritual comes from commercial advertising. Rather than adversisements
that encourage cooperation and concern for those who have had fewer advantages,
current adversiings is vacuous and indulgent, the equivalent of pornography in
terms of its ethical content. Selfishness is held up as an ideal and it makes a
grotesque appeal to the appetite, to the unreasoning instincts of the brain
stem. Such advertising is violation of the sacredness of food and of clothing,
of everything in our daily lives. By contrast, Confucian rituals affirmed the
relations between members of society and a spiritual aspect in daily life.
We should be encouraging people to value every grain of rice, every drop of
water, and it is unethical to suggest to our citizens that they should treat
binge eating as something to be emulated. Our climate has been turned into a
desert, and our society has been turned into a desert by TV programs that deny
what is the best in the Confucian tradition: the ethical imperative for
personal frugality and a deep respect for agricultural production.
The failure of citizens to wrap their minds around the threat of nuclear war,
of climate change, of the rapid concentration of wealth and of other dangers is
a direct result of a new anti-intellectual culture. We no longer employ
rigorous scientific approaches to the analysis of contemporary society, or even
to our private lives. But that anti-intellectual trend is
a result of our failure to relate our actions to the larger society because we
no longer have rituals that bind us together.
Training our citizens to control and moderate their desires was considered to
be essential in traditional Korea and China. As I witness
so many highly educated people lost in frivolous amusements today, I wonder
whether we should see those past f rituals as representing not so much an
oppressive ideology as an ethical imperative to affirm commitment to each other
through practice.
Food, society and the environment
The affirmation of the value of food in a social and environmental sense was a critical part of ritual , from ancient times, and
especially after Zhu Xi. Affirming the
importance of food in our lives, and our ties to our ancestors and our ties to nature serves to increase our awareness of the importance of food, even adding
a spiritual dimension to the daily eating and drinking of food and beverages. In the face of climate change, such a shift is absolutely necessary. We do
not have to go the some advance Western country to find such awareness. We can
find it in the Confucian past.
It is in this respect that ritual has so much potential power.
Ritual in the Confucian tradition affirms a spiritual essence within the
everyday objects, especially in food. In ancient times, this concept can be
traced back to a belief that all objects, like food, have an essence which is
spiritual (and which feeds the ancestors or nourishes heaven) and an essence with is material (and
nourishes us in this material world). The implication for later generations of that view
was that food offered up in ritual was a confirmation of the value of
agriculture and the maintenance of the environment as a means of producing
food, and an affirmation of a spiritual essence within food. The ritual act was
also a sign of respect for the process, stretching over hundreds and thousands
of years, by which humans and agriculture formed a whole.
In a traditional view of the world, man exists primarily as the farmer who
tills the fields and then he consumes the food, and finally he lies, buried,
beneath those fields. In the end, his body becoming part of that Earth again
and contributed to the process. The food that nourishes us, and will nourish
future generations, is literally the product of the ancestors.
Confucian ritual does not refer explicitly to such a process, but such an
understanding of the link between the human and the natural realms is buried not
far below the surface. After all, as the ancestors passed down to us the skills
of farming, they also gave life to us and created our environment not only
through their wisdom, but also by becoming a part of the soil.
In the last hundred years, the process by which our world is formed by the
events of the past, and our actions impact future generations has been
completely lost, leading to profoundly self-destructive acts such as the
consumption of plastic products and the use of food as a source of pleasure and
distraction, rather than a means of nourishment. The separation of the human
realm from the natural one, through sealed buildings with air conditioning, has
created an absolute break with the natural world, and a mistaken belief that
humans are somehow separate from other animals. That process has been forgotten
by the present generation, leading to a radical cultural discontinuity with the
past, and also to a glaring ignorance about where food comes from, how it is
produced and what impact that process has on our lives. The destruction of the
ecosystem and its long-term impact on food is a taboo topic which is never
mentioned.
From early times, and especially since the Song Dynasty, ritual became a
metaphysical experience for the individual, for the family, and especially for
the intellectual that reaffirmed the organic connection of humans with food,
with the environment and with a larger historical and ecological order of
being. Of course there were narrower interpretations within the popular culture
wherein ritual events served as opportunities to bring good fortune, or to
solve immediate worries of women of the household. Such understanding was no in
conflict with the metaphysical significance.
The consumption of food after the offering to the ancestors, or to heaven, especially grains and other agricultural produce made
ritual a celebration of the process by which human experience is linked to the
food that provides nourishment, and thus confirmed the intimate interplay of
earth and food, water and food
That critical space of ritual in the lives of Chinese that
made clear how one’s daily life was tied to others, and to the earth was
subject to a powerful intellectual assault from the late 19th
century as the new ideology of modernization and industrialization took root in
China. Confucian rituals were dismissed as a backwards superstition that
impeded the radical transformation of China into a modern nation[2]. Two generations of Chinese intellectuals made it a top priority to stamp
out the lingering traces of an
oppressive feudal society. Those events ceased to be a means of affirming man’s
connection to nature and to each other, or to agriculture, for them. Ritual was
perceived as a barrier to the development of factories, trains and automobiles,
financial institutions and a modern global culture. Modernity was something
that was required and it could only be achieved by severing attachments to
others, and to the natural world.
I remember when I first studied Chinese history at
Yale University in 1983. In the course I heard at length about the tragic story
of how backwards-looking bureaucrats failed to modernize China because they
adhered to rigid Confucian concepts of government, and of technology, which
hobbled them and rendered them incapable of embracing the obvious step forward
into modernity of mass production, coal-fired trains and factories and the
growth of massive cities. I was taught the tragic story of how China fell pathetically
behind the West because of such backwards thinking. The implication was that was
something essentially flawed about the Chinese cultural tradition, for all its
glory, which demanded that essential principles from the West be imported in
order to move on to the next, inevitable step of cultural evolution.
But now that we are witnessing the catastrophe of climate change and see
directly the horrible distortions in our economy and in our society that have
resulted from the use of coal and petroleum to drive factories, trains and
automobiles—not the mention a lethal new generation of weapons—can we continue
to cling to that narrative? It is a hard
myth to abandon as it is linked to every aspect of our modern ideology, both
ideologies of the right and the left. Yet we must ask whether or not a system
in which the engagement with the environment, the focus on agriculture (and
specifically food) and the demand for a human-centered economic system in which
ethics outweighed profits or scale of production was not superior to the modern
system we have imported in which the natural world, and humans as well, are
subjects for constant exploitation.
The She and Ji rituals (社稷) performed
by the Chinese emperor in Beijing (and the Korean kings of the Joseon Dynasty) served
as a unique combination of the assertion of political authority at the highest
level in the promotion of the well-being of ordinary citizens with the
recognition of the critical importance of the ecosystem for human society. These
rituals paralleled the rituals of the family at the highest level. The “She”
ritual was intended for the god of the Earth, a spiritual presence who guards
the soil so critical to nourishing the crops which nourish the people and
undergirds the entire political economy. The “Ji” ritual was intended for the
god of the crops, the spiritual presence who protects plants and assures that
they mature so as to provide food without suffering from pestilences, insects
or droughts.
The emperor’s offerings were not mere superstition, but
rather an explicitly political and spiritual representation of the essential
ties between the earth, and the plants that grow in it, and the political and
economic activities of humans. Such awareness in the political realm of ecology
created a balance between human settlements and the natural world. But that
balance has vanished from modern society. There are numerous rituals carried
out in party meetings in China today, and the hosting of foreign dignitaries,
but none of them affirm the importance of the biosphere or the centrality of
agriculture.
The loss of an awareness of
the importance of nature for human
society in the modernization project has had extremely serious consequences for modern
Chinese society. We no longer have any symbolic representations to remind the
people of the importance of nature and domestic agriculture to their physical
and spiritual wellbeing. We have no symbolic representations, or ritual
expressions, of the ties between the earth, water plants and our civilization. People are concerned about the environment in an abstract sense, but give
no thought to how every plastic object they throw away impacts the environment.
We are bombarded by images of modernity defined in terms of highways, high-rise
buildings, automobiles, computers and landscapes completely devoid of plants of any type. It is
assumed in the commercial imagination that plants, and specifically crops, are interchangeable
and that they can be bought and sold from around the world without any impact
on our civilization. Farming is considered a backwards
industry of the past.
But a civilization cut free from all awareness of the
production of food from the soil, all understanding of the effort required to feed people, is a
civilization that is in danger of falling head first into a dangerous cult of consumption and complete disregard
for our ecological future. It is a dangerous and destructive
civilization indeed.
Song Confucianism, especially as embodied by the
teachings of Zhu Xi, provided the basis for the She and Ji rituals and other
affirmations of the importance of agriculture and the environment in the lives
of all people. The focus of Zhu Xi on the metaphysical significance of man’s
position in the natural world set the groundwork for an embrace of ecology in
an intellectual and spiritual sense within the Confucian tradition, going
further than Buddhism in the criticality assigned.[3]
Zhu Xi described a complex moral psychology, limned
through ritual practice, wherein the relationship of the individual, and
society, to the natural environment was identified as central to the search for enlightenment. The process of becoming aware of one’s environment was established as a significant goal in
self-cultivation and in active practice.
Song Confucianism argued that if
we connect to our inborn nature we will see no separation between ourselves and
nature and therefore we must treat nature with appropriate reverence. Zhu Xi
refers to a mental state of “maintaining reverence” (chi jing持敬)
that was the central condition for self-cultivation. This mental state grew
from the adherence
to rules of propriety and a care for the human and natural world that was taught to young people, but also was meant to be
developed to a higher degree in adulthood. Reverence required discipline,
focused thinking and mindfulness that opened the mind to the way. The final
stage of humaneness, or the final sagehood, required a full
embrace of one’s inborn connection to nature and to the entire natural world.
Zhu Xi’s essay “A treatise on Humaneness” (Renshuo 仁说) assumed that there was no
separation between the human and the animal world. He saw a commonality not
only of experience, but of existence itself between the two realms.[4]
Zhu Xi explained “the person of humaneness regards Heaven and Earth and all
things as one body. To that person there is nothing that is not oneself.” The
enlightened one feels a deep affinity for plants, grasses and trees as living
things. For Zhu Xi it was human selfishness and hubris that blocks the
awareness of this deep connection and therefore endless effort is required.
Reverence was not only reverence for ancestors and Heaven, but also for nature
itself and a deep awareness of one’s impact on the environment.
Conclusion
A
landmark report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change convened by
the United Nations entitled “Global Warming of 1.5 C” [5]was
released recently that presents a far more shocking vision for the
immediate future than the corporate media was willing to acknowledge before.
The report suggests that humanity faces catastrophic consequences of its
carbon-centered economy and makes a clear break with the previous assumption
that carbon trading schemes are sufficient to address the problem.
The report avoids much of the far more pessimistic predictions of many experts,
but goes further than any mainstream report so far. And yet the ultimate
implications of the report have been swept under the rug by a modern society
still in deep denial. The problem is not carbon emissions from factories and
automobiles, nor it the problem the use of technologies. It is rather the full
embrace of an ideology, a mentality, which holds that the consumption of goods
defines the significance of one’s human experience.
That destructive ideology underlies most of the assumptions of our modern
society and determines the priorities of our citizens to a remarkable degree.
Yet the traditions of the past, and especially the close connection between
humans and the environment represented by food as described in the rituals of
the Confucian tradition, offer an alternative to us. We do not know yet how
that Confucian tradition can be reinterpreted for the modern age, and for the
entire world, but the potential is most certainly there. After all, Zhu Xi’s
writings on ritual were successful in Korea precisely because they emphasized
universality, not specificity. They made the ritual part of the process of
enlightenment, something that anyone could participate in.
Or we could say that Zhu Xi brought the individual act together with
universal principles in a powerful manner. Such a skill is most precisely what
we need most desperately today. Every action by the individual, every choice by
the individual, is critical to protecting our environment. We can find the
inspiration for a new practice in our daily life to address the climate change
crisis, and the food crisis, in the Confucian tradition.
[1] The critical
terms are “tian” (heaven 天), “di”
(earth 地), “ren” (man 人), better known as “sancai” (三才). But
“tian” refers not simply to the heaven above, but to the underlying principles
of the universe. “Di” is not simply the ground, but the entire ecosystem that
humanity must live in harmony with. “Ren” refers to humans and the totality of
human civilization.
[2] This intellectual revolution brought on by the work of
various Westerners in China is detailed in Jonathan Spence’s study To Change
China: Western Advisors in China (Penguin Books, 2002).
[3] B.C. Keenan. “Reverence and
Cheng-Zhu Ecology.” Dao, 2018, pp. 187-201.
[4] IBID, p. 199.
[5] The full report
is available at http://www.ipcc.ch/report/sr15/.
Circles and Squares 